Living Evidence Synthesis

Victim Vulnerabilities

Victim Vulnerabilities in Online Romance and Relationship-Based Scams: Evidence Synthesis

Published Aug 30, 2026 Updated Aug 30, 2026 Romance Scam Research Center

Publications: 45
Evidence statements: 172
Cited sources: 45
Synthesis version: 51

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Across the reviewed evidence, vulnerability to online romance and related relationship-based scams is best represented as a multilevel, process‑sensitive phenomenon in which interacting individual psychosocial characteristics, platform‑mediated exposure, and interactional offender scripts create windows of increased susceptibility rather than a single stable trait. Psychological correlates that recur in the empirical record include loneliness, romantic‑idealization (notably an Idealization component), impulsivity/urgency/sensation‑seeking, and addictive dispositions; these traits repeatedly show associations with poorer scam detection or self‑reported victimhood but explain limited variance in multivariable models. Platforms and public profile information concentrate and reveal potential targets; offender‑facing and corpus studies show tailoring of narratives to disclosed details and life‑stage cues to create intimacy and staged compliance tests. Interactional and linguistic tactics—persistent messaging, commitment‑focused framing, testing‑the‑water small requests, crisis narratives, and early apparent profits in investment hybrids—are documented mechanisms that escalate grooming and can sustain continued payments. Methodological limitations are recurrent and explicitly noted: much evidence is cross‑sectional, retrospective, context‑limited, or based on self‑selected or complaint samples; authors call for longitudinal, mixed‑method, and cross‑cultural work and for development of validated measures of susceptibility. ^{[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13]}

Multilevel, interactional framing of vulnerability

Offender‑perspective and corpus studies corroborate that vulnerability depends on the overlap between target characteristics and scripted tactics: offenders gather publicly available profile cues and prioritize targets perceived as emotionally or financially vulnerable, and criminological analyses show staged escalation that interacts with victims’ decision processes over time rather than being a single event. ^{[6] [14] [15] [9]}

Several systematic reviews and scoping syntheses explicitly characterize grooming and narrative construction as central to how vulnerability is produced in relationship‑based fraud, arguing that vulnerability emerges from interaction among individual states, platform affordances, and offender scripts rather than from one dispositional cause. ^{[16] [17] [1]}

Psychological correlates and limits of predictive power

Measured psychological traits show consistent but limited predictive signals. Replicated studies associate romantic‑belief (especially an Idealization component), impulsivity, urgency/sensation seeking, and addictive disposition with greater likelihood of being fooled or with poorer profile‑detection performance, yet regression models typically explain modest variance (for example a profile‑detection model explaining ~13% of variance), so these traits do not form a robust, generalizable victim typology on their own. ^{[2] [3] [18]}

Loneliness and recent life transitions (for example divorce, bereavement, or seeking a new partner) recur as contextual conditions linked to increased online romantic engagement and to being targeted; qualitative victim narratives and complaint‑analysis work repeatedly identify loneliness or life‑change moments as exploitable openings. ^{[19] [20] [21] [22] [1]}

Platform exposure, profiling, and target selection

Dating platforms and social media concentrate people actively seeking partners and make profile information available for offender harvesting; corpus and profile studies show scammers construct target‑seeking personas and use publicly shared details to tailor approaches and assess earning power, relationship availability, and family interference risk. ^{[23] [7] [24] [5]}

Platform dynamics—constant mobile messaging, rapid reciprocal disclosure, private messaging capabilities, and weak account‑registration verification—are described as facilitating grooming because they accelerate intimacy, reduce deliberation time, and can deny potential victims external reality checks; studies also document that leakable personal data and platform affordances expand offenders’ ability to target and personalize narratives. ^{[8] [1] [25] [26] [5] [27]}

Corpus and linguistic studies show early‑profile cues (commitment‑focused language, social‑approval framing) purposefully reduce scepticism and encourage rapid intimacy; these tactics can make victims overlook textual inconsistencies and grammatical errors, sustaining suspended disbelief that enables escalation to money requests. ^{[8] [7] [5] [28]}

Interactional tactics, escalation, and persistence

Qualitative interview studies and stage‑model analyses identify psychological mechanisms that help explain continued payments and re‑engagement: sunk‑cost reasoning tied to prior emotional investment, cognitive dissonance/rationalization when faced with contradictory evidence, near‑win events in investment hybrids that encourage further risk-taking, and addiction‑like involvement (salience, tolerance, withdrawal) that hinders disengagement. ^{[29] [10]}

Small‑gift or early profit signals and staged small requests function as screening and escalation tactics: a testing‑the‑water small request often appears late in grooming and initial compliance tends to increase later compliance because prior investment and relationship commitment make refusal harder. ^{[9] [10]}

Multiple studies report repeat victimization and mechanisms that impeded disengagement: some victims returned to the original or a new romance scam even after law enforcement informed them of the fraud; authors identified cognitive dissonance as a way victims dismissed contradictory information while preserving a desired narrative; near‑win events were reported to help explain continued involvement; some participants described addiction‑like involvement (salience, tolerance, withdrawal, loss of control, reduced participation in other activities); denial left victims vulnerable to re‑victimization; and information overload or mental exhaustion led some participants to overlook warning signs. ^{[29] [30] [31]}

Population‑specific patterns and groups with documented vulnerabilities

Older adults are a recurrent focus: narrative reviews, complaint datasets, and targeted syntheses identify social isolation, bereavement, cognitive decline, and limited digital literacy as factors that can increase targeting and financial harm for some older victims, while other reported‑case analyses caution that older age is not uniformly associated with greater reporting or monetary loss. The literature therefore documents age‑specific vulnerabilities but finds mixed population‑level associations and calls for nuanced, contextual analysis rather than age‑only stereotypes. ^{[32] [33] [34] [35] [36]}

Other groups with context‑specific vulnerabilities are identified in targeted studies. Adolescents can be groomed through cultural and parental‑pressure mechanisms that make secret online interaction attractive; survivors with acquired brain injury report cognitive and decision‑making deficits and ‘scam blindness’ linked to greater susceptibility; and studies of trafficking and pig‑butchering contexts document that economic hardship and limited employment opportunities are important reasons people enter pathways that expose them to romance‑investment fraud. ^{[37] [38] [39]}

Methodological patterns, explicit limitations, and priority gaps

Several reviews and individual papers explicitly identify recurring methodological limitations and priority directions: heterogeneous study designs and measures, limited granularity when different scam types are grouped together, the absence of validated instruments for measuring vulnerability and offender strategies, and the need for longitudinal designs to understand how susceptibility evolves over time. ^{[11] [2] [12] [40] [13]}

Targeted gap statements in the reviewed corpus call for research on specific underexplored topics: better disaggregation of scam types and risk factors, clearer analysis of factors influencing workers’ compliance with pig‑butchering syndicates, and direct empirical study of human‑trafficking forms that compel people to conduct fraudulent activity in cyberspace. ^{[2] [41]}

Among included studies (n=32, 2016–2024), reported methods include surveys, interviews, and simulated scam experiments. Authors note gaps and limitations that motivate future work: examination of victims’ psychological profiles beyond trust and emotional connection; investigation of language patterns, psychological attributes, and criminal behavior using correlational approaches; larger samples of victims and perpetrators and mixed quantitative–qualitative methods; clarification of specific identified risk factors; and attention to neglected social contexts. One study cautions that the three identified factors may not encompass all dimensions of internet‑fraud susceptibility among victims. ^{[11] [44] [43] [42] [45] [40]}

References

This AI-assisted synthesis is based on reviewed evidence records. It may contain errors or omissions. Follow the publication and DOI links, consult the original works, and make your own judgment about the evidence.

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This synthesis version cites 45 public RSRC records. The broader Library currently contains 165 approved publications mapped to this topic. Newly mapped publications can appear in the topic collection before they are incorporated into a later synthesis version.

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View 45 cited publication records from synthesis version 51

Citation 1
Mapping romance fraud research – a systematic review
Kassem, R.; Carter, E. (2023) Journal of Financial Crime
Citation 2
The online dating romance scam: causes and consequences of victimhood
Buchanan, T.; Whitty, MT. (2013) Psychology, Crime & Law
Citation 3
Do You Love Me? Psychological Characteristics of Romance Scam Victims
Whitty, MT. (2017) Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking
Citation 4
Cyber Romance Scam Victimization Analysis using Routine Activity Theory Versus Apriori Algorithm
Saad, ME.; Norul, S.; Zamri, M. (2018) International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications
Citation 5
The Frames of Romance Scamming
Faber, P. (2024) Research in Language
Citation 6
Modelling the modus operandi of online romance fraud: Perspectives of online romance fraudsters
Abubakari, Yushawu (2024) Journal of Economic Criminology
Citation 7
Self and desired partner descriptions in the online romance scam: a linguistic analysis of scammer and general user profiles on online dating portals
Lee, KF.; Chan, MY.; Mohamad Ali, A. (2022) Crime Prevention and Community Safety
Citation 8
Devices of Textual Illusion: Victimization in Romance Scam E-Letters
Dreijers, G.; Rudziša, V. (2020) Research in Language
Citation 9
Anatomy of the online dating romance scam
Whitty, MT. (2013) Security Journal
Citation 10
Persuasive Schemes for Financial Exploitation in Online Romance Scam: An Anatomy on Sha Zhu Pan (杀猪盘) in China
Wang, F.; Zhou, X. (2022) Victims & Offenders
Citation 11
Uncovering vulnerability to fraud and scams among adult victims in online and offline contexts: A systematic review
Dadà, Chiara Barbara; Colautti, Laura; Rosi, Alessia; Cavallini, Elena; Antonietti, Alessandro; Iannello, Paola (2025) Computers in Human Behavior
Citation 12
A scoping review of online romance scams: Conceptual construction and comparative analysis
Wang, Fangzhou (2026) International Review of Victimology
Citation 13
Factors of susceptibility to online romance scam in Malaysia: unraveling the complex pathways
Purwaningrum, Evi Kurniasari; Ho, Yi Ming; Imawati, Diana; Prihadi, Kususanto Ditto; Talib, Mansor Abu (2024) International Journal of Public Health Science (IJPHS)
Citation 14
The Gamification of Online Romance Fraud through Offenders’ Cards
Abubakari, Yushawu; Oseh-Ovarah, Valeen (2025) Digital Threats: Research and Practice
Citation 15
Online Dating Scam Victims Psychological Impact Analysis
Wang, C. (2022) Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences
Citation 16
Grooming in online dating romance frauds and scams: A scoping review
Feng, Maja (2026) Journal of Economic Criminology
Citation 17
What do we know about online romance fraud studies? A systematic review of the empirical literature (2000 to 2021)
Lazarus, S.; Whittaker, JM.; McGuire, MR.; Platt, L. (2023) Journal of Economic Criminology
Citation 18
Who can spot an online romance scam?
Whitty, MT. (2019) Journal of Financial Crime
Citation 19
Law Enforcement Against Perpetrators Of Romance Fraud In Cyberspace
Munir, Miftahul (2025) Proceedings of the First International Cyber Law Conference, ICL-C 2023, 11 November 2023, Jakarta, Indonesia
Citation 20
Epistolary Affect and Romance Scams: Letter from an Unknown Woman
Steyerl, H. (2011) October
Citation 21
A Study on Romance Scam : The Current Situation and Effective Countermeasures
Kim, Hyo-shin; Seo, Jun-bae (2019) The Police Science Journal
Citation 22
Online Romance Scammers
Shapiro, LR. (2022) Cyberpredators and Their Prey
Citation 23
The Electronic Spanish Prisoner
Gillespie, AA. (2017) The Journal of Criminal Law
Citation 24
Catfishing – jako przejaw przestępstwa kradzieży tożsamości
Gądzik, Zuzanna (2024) Krytyka Prawa
Citation 25
Catfishing: a conduta de assumir uma identidade falsa nas plataformas de mídia social e suas consequências jurídico-penais
Almeida, Paulo Henrique Carvalho; Costa, Sebastião Patrício Mendes da (2025) Opinión Jurídica
Citation 26
Análisis Jurídico del Catfishing en Transacciones de Comercio Telemático en Ecuador: Desafíos y Soluciones en el Contexto de la Seguridad Cibernética
Coronel-Rivera, Katerine Alexandra; Arévalo-Vásquez, Carmen Elizabeth; Villavicencio, Marcel (2024) MQRInvestigar
Citation 27
Developing online deception literacy while looking for love
Toma, Catalina L (2016) Media, Culture & Society
Citation 28
Drawing on social approval as a linguistic strategy: A discourse semantic analysis of judgement evaluation in suspected online romance scammer dating profiles
Lee, KF; Chan, MY; Ali, Afida Mohamad (2024) Psychology of Language and Communication
Citation 29
The Scammers Persuasive Techniques Model: Development of a Stage Model to Explain the Online Dating Romance Scam
Whitty, MT. (2013) British Journal of Criminology
Citation 30
The online dating romance scam: The psychological impact on victims – both financial and non-financial
Whitty, MT.; Buchanan, T. (2015) Criminology & Criminal Justice
Citation 31
“Falling into a Black Hole”: A Qualitative Exploration of the Lived Experiences of Cyberscam Victim-Survivors and Their Social Support Networks
Cazanis, Alyxandra; Carminati, Jao-Yue; Chew, Kimberly; Cross, Cassandra; Ponsford, Jennie; Gould, Kate Rachel (2025) Victims & Offenders
Citation 32
Romance Scams and Older Adults: A Health and Social Care Perspective
Sorinmade, Oluwatoyin; Emmett, Charlotte; Elugbadebo, Olufisayo; Okolo, Chidera (2025) Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine
Citation 33
From swipe to swindle: a narrative review of research on older adult victims of romance fraud
Pope, Taylor; Seto, Christopher H. (2026) Journal of Elder Abuse & Neglect
Citation 34
More than Money: Examining the Potential Exposure of Romance Fraud Victims to Identity Crime
Cross, C.; Holt, TJ. (2023) Global Crime
Citation 35
Does age matter? Examining seniors’ experiences of romance fraud
Cross, Cassandra; Holt, Thomas J. (2025) Security Journal
Citation 36
No laughing matter
Cross, Cassandra (2015) International Review of Victimology
Citation 37
My Parents Expectations Were Overwhelming: Online Dating Romance Scams Targeting Minors in Iran Through Exploitation of Parental Pressure
Sima Amirkhani; Mahla Fatemeh Alizadeh; Dave Randall; Gunnar Stevens; Douglas Zytko (2026) Publication Server of Bonn-Rhein-Sieg University of Applied Sciences (Bonn-Rhein-Sieg University of Applied Sciences)
Citation 38
“They just say how stupid I was for being conned”. Cyberscams and acquired brain injury: A qualitative exploration of the lived experience of survivors and close others
Gould, Kate R.; Carminati, Jao-Yue J.; Ponsford, Jennie L. (2021) Neuropsychological Rehabilitation
Citation 39
A new type of victim? Profiling survivors of modern slavery in the online scam industry in Southeast Asia
Franceschini, Ivan; Li, Ling; Hu, Yige; Bo, Mark (2024) Trends in Organized Crime
Citation 40
Beyond Dollars: Unveiling the Deeper Layers of Online Romance Scams Introducing “Body Scam”
Amirkhani, Sima; Alizadeh, Fatemeh; Randall, Dave; Stevens, Gunnar (2024) Extended Abstracts of the CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Citation 41
Victim-offender overlap: the identity transformations experienced by trafficked Chinese workers escaping from pig-butchering scam syndicate
Wang, Fangzhou (2024) Trends in Organized Crime
Citation 42
“Why did I fall for it?” Exploring internet fraud susceptibility in the pig butchering scam
Xie, Ziyi; Duan, Zhizhuang (2024) Security Journal
Citation 43
Online-Dating Romance Scam in Malaysia: An Analysis of Online Conversations between Scammers and Victims
Shaari, AH.; Kamaluddin, MR.; Paizi@Fauzi, WF.; Mohd, M. (2019) GEMA Online® Journal of Language Studies
Citation 44
Digital romance fraud targeting unmarried women
Thumboo, Sharen; Mukherjee, Sudeshna (2024) Discover Global Society
Citation 45
Therapeutic but toxic spaces: Romance fraud victimization from a psychosocial perspective
Yoshida, Yutaka (2025) Journal of Economic Criminology

Revision history

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Version 51
Current public version Aug 30, 2026

Automated claim-level support repair round 2, correcting 1 passage from synthesis version 50.
Version 50
Aug 30, 2026

Automated claim-level support repair round 1, correcting 2 passages from synthesis version 49.
Version 49
Aug 30, 2026

Automated evidence-grounded revision attempt 2. This document is a revised replacement synthesis produced in response to an independent audit. Protected passages identified by the audit were reproduced verbatim with the exact evidence IDs listed. Other passages were narrowed or rephrased to remove unsupported or overstated claims and to align claims exactly with the evidence records judged relevant by the audit. The revision emphasizes explicit methodological limitations and future‑work statemen...
- Publications: 45 (+3)
- Evidence statements: 172 (+17)
- Cited sources: 45 (+3)
Sources added: Digital romance fraud targeting unmarried women; Online-Dating Romance Scam in Malaysia: An Analysis of Online Conversations between Scammers and Victims; Therapeutic but toxic spaces: Romance fraud victimization from a psychosocial perspective; “Why did I fall for it?” Exploring internet fraud susceptibility in the pig butchering scam.

Sources removed: The Mental Health Impacts of Internet Scams.

View full revision history (51 versions)

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