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Living Evidence Synthesis

Psychological and Financial Harms

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Psychological and Financial Harms of Relationship‑Based Online Fraud (Victim Impact, Financial Loss, Psychological Harm)

Published Updated Romance Scam Research Center
Publications
39
Evidence statements
178
Cited sources
39
Synthesis version
87

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Across the reviewed evidence, relationship‑based online frauds produce substantial and sometimes very large financial losses per victim and recurring extraction from the same targets; qualitative and administrative sources also document wide-ranging psychological harms, including prolonged distress, shame, loss of trust, and grief over a relationship believed to be genuine. The evidence base is rich in detailed victim narratives, complaint records, court‑document analyses, and targeted forensic tracing, which together document the co‑occurrence of monetary and emotional harms but rely largely on nonrepresentative samples and unverified self‑reports. For this reason, the reviewed corpus supports detailed descriptions of harms and mechanisms but does not permit representative population estimates of typical loss magnitudes, prevalence of specific psychiatric outcomes, or causal claims about susceptibility. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]

Patterns and magnitude of financial harms

Multiple empirical and case‑level sources document that individual victims can suffer very large monetary losses and that extraction often occurs through repeated, cumulative transfers. Court records, forensic wallet tracing, and complaint‑narrative analyses report single‑victim losses ranging from modest sums to amounts that exhaust savings, require borrowing, or reach six‑figure equivalents in local currencies; several studies and case series explicitly describe multi‑transfer escalation (three or more transfers) that together produce substantial total losses. [1] [2] [5] [7] [8]

Cryptocurrency‑enabled romance‑investment (pig‑butchering) scams and hybrid romance‑investment operations are repeatedly associated with especially large or traceable financial outflows in the reviewed corpus. Mixed‑method blockchain tracing, complaint‑narrative analyses, and judgment studies report concentrated on‑chain receipts, high mean or mean‑like reported losses for investment‑style scams, and documented cases where victims liquidated retirement savings or borrowed extensively to meet scam demands. [9] [10] [11] [8] [12]

Although many studies and practice reports quantify large aggregate losses and rising complaint volumes, the evidence cannot produce a representative typical loss for all targets because datasets are non‑representative, losses are self‑reported or estimated in complaint narratives, and classification practices vary (for example, some romance‑initiated investment losses are recorded as investment fraud). Authors therefore caution against extrapolating single‑dataset medians to broad populations. [13] [14] [6]

Psychological harms after discovery

A consistent qualitative finding is large‑magnitude emotional harm following discovery: victims report shock, shame, guilt, anger, loss of self‑esteem, distrust, social withdrawal, and impaired interpersonal functioning. Several interview‑based and narrative studies characterize these effects as comparable to bereavement or as long‑term trauma‑like symptoms in subsets of participants. [3] [15] [16] [17]

Quantitative and mixed‑methods records in the corpus show that financial victims often report greater and longer‑lasting emotional distress than non‑financial victims, although substantial distress is also reported by some people who did not lose money. Cross‑sectional associations link greater financial loss and certain personality or loneliness measures to higher reported emotional impact; these studies report associations rather than causal effects. [18]

Multiple reviewed sources report that romance fraud can produce a “double hit” for victims: monetary loss combined with grief over the loss of a relationship believed to be genuine. These accounts describe victims as devastated and note severe emotional and social consequences. [9] [20] [4] [19]

Social, functional, and material downstream consequences

Complaint narratives, case reports, and interview studies document downstream material consequences including asset liquidation, borrowing from friends or family, debt accumulation, and in some cases bankruptcy or loss of income or housing. Several case series provide concrete examples where victims sold possessions, borrowed to meet demands, or faced prolonged financial recovery. [5] [21] [22] [23]

Reviewed studies report severe financial harms experienced by targets of scams. Reported losses ranged from under $100 up to entire life savings, including amounts from US$45,000 to US$187,000 in one sample. Consequences documented in the evidence include becoming unable to support oneself, declaring bankruptcy, debt from credit-card identity theft, and having to bear financial costs of private recovery efforts. In the study reporting US$45,000–US$187,000 losses, some participants recovered part of the money through insurance, bank reversal, or other means, but none retrieved money directly from the scammer. [5] [22]

Administrative analyses and narrative syntheses note that some victims experience fear of subsequent victimization (including identity misuse or reputational harm) and that fear responses can cross online and offline domains, affecting perceived security, daily functioning, and freedom of movement for a subset of complainants. [24]

Severe, sexualized, and exploitation‑linked harms

A subset of documented cases involve sexualized coercion and image‑based blackmail (sextortion). Qualitative and administrative analyses report instances where victims were coerced to perform sexual acts on webcam and later extorted with recorded images or threats to publish intimate material; these experiences are explicitly described by some victims as sexual violation and are associated with intense shame, anger, and severe distress. [20] [25] [26]

Other case series and survivor‑report studies link romance‑initiated contact to escalation into in‑person exploitation, forced criminality, or trafficking in particular contexts (notably some pig‑butchering compound reports). These accounts document passport confiscation, confinement, forced labour to run scams, physical assault, and severe post‑escape psychological trauma among survivors; the reviewed studies emphasize these outcomes are present in a subset of operations rather than being typical of all romance‑initiated fraud. [27] [28] [29]

Studies of trafficking‑linked operations and pig‑butchering compounds report substantial profits extracted from victims and numerous coercive practices directed at trapped or coerced workers; survivor interviews and political‑economy work document ongoing psychological sequelae among escapees and indicate bidirectional harms affecting both coerced workers and financial targets in these contexts. [30] [11] [28] [31]

Heterogeneity of victim experience and identified correlates

Victim experiences are heterogeneous. Some evidence links greater financial loss to larger emotional impact, while other studies document substantial emotional distress among people who report no financial loss (for example, when the primary injury is relational betrayal or fear of image exposure). Quantitative studies report associations (cross‑sectional) between loneliness, certain personality traits, and higher emotional impact in some samples, but these designs do not establish causality. [18]

Age and demographic factors show mixed associations. Large complaint datasets indicate older adults can report higher median losses in some series, yet other analyses found seniors were not more likely than other complainants to report monetary loss in particular samples. Authors caution that complaint‑based and help‑seeking samples may not represent population prevalence or susceptibility. [32] [33]

Special‑population studies (for example, acquired brain injury, sexual‑minority app users, or trafficking survivors) document context‑specific vulnerabilities and clinically relevant downstream effects in their respective samples, but these findings derive from purposive, localized samples and are informative about mechanism and need rather than representing population prevalence. [34] [35] [31]

Methodological patterns, limitations, and implications for interpretation

The reviewed corpus is methodologically heterogeneous and dominated by qualitative interviews, complaint‑narrative analyses, court‑judgment coding, forensic single‑case traces, and narrative or scoping reviews. These approaches document detailed mechanisms, interactional tactics, and striking individual harms but limit the ability to produce representative prevalence estimates, precise typical loss magnitudes, or causal inferences about susceptibility. [4] [36] [8] [11]

Authors explicitly identify data-quality limitations in many administrative and complaint datasets: optional responses, limited definitions and guidance, varied interpretation of items, recall limitations, and unverified self-reports—constraints that reduce reliability for population inference and require caution when extrapolating single-dataset medians. [6]

Qualitative and case-series work can document victims’ experiences and specific outcomes— for example, one case-series reported financial losses ranging from US$45,000 to US$187,000 and that no participant retrieved money directly from scammers. Because qualitative, interpretive approaches may produce setting-dependent findings, those results may lack generalisability. Future research should use multidimensional affect scales or qualitative methods to examine specific victim reactions. [18] [5] [37]

Evidence gaps and supported future directions

Researchers repeatedly identify a need for longitudinal, multidimensional measurement of psychological outcomes after romance‑type scams, and for studies that include people targeted who did not sustain direct financial loss. Multiple qualitative and review records explicitly recommend validated affect measures, stage‑sensitive designs, and follow‑up to understand persistence, recovery trajectories, and the comparative weight of relational versus monetary harms. [2] [38] [18] [3]

One study analyzed both victim-reported individual losses and the combined totals received by cryptocurrency wallet-address clusters as separate monetary outcome measures. Within the corpus, pig-butchering scams are reported to have the highest average total reported loss (mean $336,719). The described pig-butchering process culminates when scammers transfer out the target's entire investment and vanish. [10] [11] [28]

Authors and reviewers documented non‑financial harms, describing fear responses organized around affect, cognition, and behavior. Affective fear was commonly reported, often following direct, explicit threats, while cognitive fear reflected perceived risk and vulnerability. Nearly all victims reported psychological or emotional consequences (18 of 19), with six describing those effects as devastating. [24] [39]

References

  1. Kim, Hyo-shin; Seo, Jun-bae (2019). A Study on Romance Scam : The Current Situation and Effective Countermeasures DOI
  2. Dreijers, G.; Rudziša, V. (2020). Devices of Textual Illusion: Victimization in Romance Scam E-Letters DOI
  3. Whitty, MT.; Buchanan, T. (2015). The online dating romance scam: The psychological impact on victims – both financial and non-financial DOI
  4. Kassem, R.; Carter, E. (2023). Mapping romance fraud research – a systematic review DOI
  5. Aborisade, Richard Abayomi; Ocheja, Akoji; Okuneye, Babatunde Adekunle (2023). Emotional and financial costs of online dating scam: A phenomenological narrative of the experiences of victims of Nigerian romance fraudsters DOI
  6. Cross, C.; Holt, TJ. (2023). More than Money: Examining the Potential Exposure of Romance Fraud Victims to Identity Crime DOI
  7. Lee, Hyejin; Boo, Minseo (2025). Analyzing the Evolving Modus Operandi of Romance Scams via Court Judgments: Crime Script and Policy Implications DOI
  8. Wang, Fangzhou (2023). Sentencing Disparity and Focal Concern: An Assessment of Judicial Decisions on Sha Zhu Pan Cases Collected From China Judgements Online DOI
  9. Cross, C. (2022). Using artificial intelligence (AI) and deepfakes to deceive victims: the need to rethink current romance fraud prevention messaging DOI
  10. Lim, A.; Choi, KS. (2025). Modus Operandi and Blockchain Analysis of Romance Scams: Cryptocurrency-Driven Victimization DOI
  11. Dulisse, Brandon; Fitch, Chivon; Denis, Jaden; Connealy, Nathan (2025). Old techniques, new technologies: Exploring patterns from scammers that commit financial fraud via cryptocurrency DOI
  12. Gauci, Christine; Vella, Mary Grace (2026). Love and Technology DOI
  13. Valentin Le Normand (2026). Romance Scam Statistics 2024-2026: verified, source-attributed figures from FBI IC3, FTC, City of London Police, Cybermalveillance.gouv.fr, GASA and Chainalysis (Baromètre 2026 des arnaques sentimentales) DOI
  14. Tao, Han (2022). Loving strangers, avoiding risks: Online dating practices and scams among Chinese lesbian ( lala ) women DOI
  15. Coluccia, A.; Pozza, A.; Ferretti, F.; Carabellese, F.; Masti, A.; Gualtieri, G. (2020). Online Romance Scams: Relational Dynamics and Psychological Characteristics of the Victims and Scammers. A Scoping Review DOI
  16. Thiel, C. (2020). Love scam in cyberspace DOI
  17. Cross, Cassandra (2022). Meeting the Challenges of Fraud in a Digital World DOI
  18. Buchanan, T.; Whitty, MT. (2013). The online dating romance scam: causes and consequences of victimhood DOI
  19. Cross, Cassandra (2019). ‘Oh we can’t actually do anything about that’: The problematic nature of jurisdiction for online fraud victims DOI
  20. Whitty, MT. (2013). Anatomy of the online dating romance scam DOI
  21. Mouri, Masako (2024). Romance Scam and Legal Interpreting/Translation DOI
  22. Shapiro, LR. (2022). Online Romance Scammers DOI
  23. Rabby, F.; Chowdory, MMU. (2024). Romance Scamming: Uncovering the Transnational Crime and Legal Challenges DOI
  24. Cross, C.; Lee, M. (2022). Exploring Fear of Crime for Those Targeted by Romance Fraud DOI
  25. Whitty, MT. (2013). The Scammers Persuasive Techniques Model: Development of a Stage Model to Explain the Online Dating Romance Scam DOI
  26. Cross, C. (2023). Romance baiting, cryptorom and ‘pig butchering’: an evolutionary step in romance fraud DOI
  27. Wang, Fangzhou (2024). Victim-offender overlap: the identity transformations experienced by trafficked Chinese workers escaping from pig-butchering scam syndicate DOI
  28. Franceschini, Ivan; Li, Ling; Bo, Mark (2023). Compound Capitalism: A Political Economy of Southeast Asia’s Online Scam Operations DOI
  29. Franceschini, Ivan; Li, Ling; Hu, Yige; Bo, Mark (2024). A new type of victim? Profiling survivors of modern slavery in the online scam industry in Southeast Asia DOI
  30. Sarkar, Gargi; Shukla, Sandeep K. (2024). Bi-Directional Exploitation of Human Trafficking Victims: Both Targets and Perpetrators in Cybercrime DOI
  31. Cross, Cassandra (2018). (Mis)Understanding the Impact of Online Fraud: Implications for Victim Assistance Schemes DOI
  32. DeLiema, Marguerite; Witt, Paul (2023). Profiling consumers who reported mass marketing scams: demographic characteristics and emotional sentiments associated with victimization DOI
  33. Cross, Cassandra; Holt, Thomas J. (2025). Does age matter? Examining seniors’ experiences of romance fraud DOI
  34. Gould, Kate R.; Carminati, Jao-Yue J.; Ponsford, Jennie L. (2021). “They just say how stupid I was for being conned”. Cyberscams and acquired brain injury: A qualitative exploration of the lived experience of survivors and close others DOI
  35. Chew, Kimberly Ann; Ponsford, Jennie; Gould, Kate Rachel (2024). Addressing Cyberscams and Acquired Brain Injury (“I Desperately Need to Know What to Do”): Qualitative Exploration of Clinicians’ and Service Providers’ Perspectives DOI
  36. Ordekian, Marilyne; Papasavva, Antonis; Mariconti, Enrico; Vasek, Marie (2024). A Sinister Fattening: Dissecting the Tales of Pig Butchering and Other Cryptocurrency Scams DOI
  37. Gauci, Christine; Vella, Mary Grace (2025). Romance Fraud: Its Repercussions on Victims’ Wellbeing DOI
  38. Yosiandra, Syakira Yuniar; Sakariah, Dewi Saraswati (2024). Unveiling the Romance Scam Scheme: Psychological Manipulation and Its Impact on Victims DOI
  39. Notté, Raoul; Leukfeldt, E.R.; Malsch, Marijke (2021). Double, triple or quadruple hits? Exploring the impact of cybercrime on victims in the Netherlands DOI

This AI-assisted synthesis is based on reviewed evidence records. It may contain errors or omissions. Follow the publication and DOI links, consult the original works, and make your own judgment about the evidence.

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Explore the Psychological and Financial Harms evidence base

This synthesis version cites 39 public RSRC records. The broader Library currently contains 225 approved publications mapped to this topic. Newly mapped publications can appear in the topic collection before they are incorporated into a later synthesis version.

Browse 225 topic publications
View 39 cited publication records from synthesis version 87
  1. Citation 1
    A Study on Romance Scam : The Current Situation and Effective Countermeasures

    Kim, Hyo-shin; Seo, Jun-bae (2019) The Police Science Journal

  2. Citation 2
    Devices of Textual Illusion: Victimization in Romance Scam E-Letters

    Dreijers, G.; Rudziša, V. (2020) Research in Language

  3. Citation 3
    The online dating romance scam: The psychological impact on victims – both financial and non-financial

    Whitty, MT.; Buchanan, T. (2015) Criminology & Criminal Justice

  4. Citation 4
    Mapping romance fraud research – a systematic review

    Kassem, R.; Carter, E. (2023) Journal of Financial Crime

  5. Citation 5
    Emotional and financial costs of online dating scam: A phenomenological narrative of the experiences of victims of Nigerian romance fraudsters

    Aborisade, Richard Abayomi; Ocheja, Akoji; Okuneye, Babatunde Adekunle (2023) Journal of Economic Criminology

  6. Citation 6
    More than Money: Examining the Potential Exposure of Romance Fraud Victims to Identity Crime

    Cross, C.; Holt, TJ. (2023) Global Crime

  7. Citation 7
    Analyzing the Evolving Modus Operandi of Romance Scams via Court Judgments: Crime Script and Policy Implications

    Lee, Hyejin; Boo, Minseo (2025) KOREAN CRIMINOLOGICAL REVIEW

  8. Citation 8
    Sentencing Disparity and Focal Concern: An Assessment of Judicial Decisions on Sha Zhu Pan Cases Collected From China Judgements Online

    Wang, Fangzhou (2023) Crime & Delinquency

  9. Citation 9
    Using artificial intelligence (AI) and deepfakes to deceive victims: the need to rethink current romance fraud prevention messaging

    Cross, C. (2022) Crime Prevention and Community Safety

  10. Citation 10
    Modus Operandi and Blockchain Analysis of Romance Scams: Cryptocurrency-Driven Victimization

    Lim, A.; Choi, KS. (2025) International Journal of Cybersecurity Intelligence & Cybercrime

  11. Citation 11
    Old techniques, new technologies: Exploring patterns from scammers that commit financial fraud via cryptocurrency

    Dulisse, Brandon; Fitch, Chivon; Denis, Jaden; Connealy, Nathan (2025) Journal of Economic Criminology

  12. Citation 12
    Love and Technology

    Gauci, Christine; Vella, Mary Grace (2026) The Palgrave Handbook of Global Social Problems

  13. Citation 13
    Romance Scam Statistics 2024-2026: verified, source-attributed figures from FBI IC3, FTC, City of London Police, Cybermalveillance.gouv.fr, GASA and Chainalysis (Baromètre 2026 des arnaques sentimentales)

    Valentin Le Normand (2026)

  14. Citation 14
    Loving strangers, avoiding risks: Online dating practices and scams among Chinese lesbian ( lala ) women

    Tao, Han (2022) Media, Culture & Society

  15. Citation 15
    Online Romance Scams: Relational Dynamics and Psychological Characteristics of the Victims and Scammers. A Scoping Review

    Coluccia, A.; Pozza, A.; Ferretti, F.; Carabellese, F.; Masti, A.; Gualtieri, G. (2020) Clinical Practice & Epidemiology in Mental Health

  16. Citation 16
    Love scam in cyberspace

    Thiel, C. (2020) Cyberkriminologie

  17. Citation 17
    Meeting the Challenges of Fraud in a Digital World

    Cross, Cassandra (2022) The Handbook of Security

  18. Citation 18
    The online dating romance scam: causes and consequences of victimhood

    Buchanan, T.; Whitty, MT. (2013) Psychology, Crime & Law

  19. Citation 19
    ‘Oh we can’t actually do anything about that’: The problematic nature of jurisdiction for online fraud victims

    Cross, Cassandra (2019) Criminology & Criminal Justice

  20. Citation 20
    Anatomy of the online dating romance scam

    Whitty, MT. (2013) Security Journal

  21. Citation 21
    Romance Scam and Legal Interpreting/Translation

    Mouri, Masako (2024) IICAH Official Conference Proceedings

  22. Citation 22
    Online Romance Scammers

    Shapiro, LR. (2022) Cyberpredators and Their Prey

  23. Citation 23
    Romance Scamming: Uncovering the Transnational Crime and Legal Challenges

    Rabby, F.; Chowdory, MMU. (2024) International Journal of Law and Societal Studies

  24. Citation 24
    Exploring Fear of Crime for Those Targeted by Romance Fraud

    Cross, C.; Lee, M. (2022) Victims & Offenders

  25. Citation 25
    The Scammers Persuasive Techniques Model: Development of a Stage Model to Explain the Online Dating Romance Scam

    Whitty, MT. (2013) British Journal of Criminology

  26. Citation 26
    Romance baiting, cryptorom and ‘pig butchering’: an evolutionary step in romance fraud

    Cross, C. (2023) Current Issues in Criminal Justice

  27. Citation 27
    Victim-offender overlap: the identity transformations experienced by trafficked Chinese workers escaping from pig-butchering scam syndicate

    Wang, Fangzhou (2024) Trends in Organized Crime

  28. Citation 28
    Compound Capitalism: A Political Economy of Southeast Asia’s Online Scam Operations

    Franceschini, Ivan; Li, Ling; Bo, Mark (2023) Critical Asian Studies

  29. Citation 29
    A new type of victim? Profiling survivors of modern slavery in the online scam industry in Southeast Asia

    Franceschini, Ivan; Li, Ling; Hu, Yige; Bo, Mark (2024) Trends in Organized Crime

  30. Citation 30
    Bi-Directional Exploitation of Human Trafficking Victims: Both Targets and Perpetrators in Cybercrime

    Sarkar, Gargi; Shukla, Sandeep K. (2024) Journal of Human Trafficking

  31. Citation 31
    (Mis)Understanding the Impact of Online Fraud: Implications for Victim Assistance Schemes

    Cross, Cassandra (2018) Victims & Offenders

  32. Citation 32
    Profiling consumers who reported mass marketing scams: demographic characteristics and emotional sentiments associated with victimization

    DeLiema, Marguerite; Witt, Paul (2023) Security Journal

  33. Citation 33
    Does age matter? Examining seniors’ experiences of romance fraud

    Cross, Cassandra; Holt, Thomas J. (2025) Security Journal

  34. Citation 34
    “They just say how stupid I was for being conned”. Cyberscams and acquired brain injury: A qualitative exploration of the lived experience of survivors and close others

    Gould, Kate R.; Carminati, Jao-Yue J.; Ponsford, Jennie L. (2021) Neuropsychological Rehabilitation

  35. Citation 35
    Addressing Cyberscams and Acquired Brain Injury (“I Desperately Need to Know What to Do”): Qualitative Exploration of Clinicians’ and Service Providers’ Perspectives

    Chew, Kimberly Ann; Ponsford, Jennie; Gould, Kate Rachel (2024) Journal of Medical Internet Research

  36. Citation 36
    A Sinister Fattening: Dissecting the Tales of Pig Butchering and Other Cryptocurrency Scams

    Ordekian, Marilyne; Papasavva, Antonis; Mariconti, Enrico; Vasek, Marie (2024) 2024 APWG Symposium on Electronic Crime Research (eCrime)

  37. Citation 37
    Romance Fraud: Its Repercussions on Victims’ Wellbeing

    Gauci, Christine; Vella, Mary Grace (2025) Women & Criminal Justice

  38. Citation 38
    Unveiling the Romance Scam Scheme: Psychological Manipulation and Its Impact on Victims

    Yosiandra, Syakira Yuniar; Sakariah, Dewi Saraswati (2024) HUMANIKA

  39. Citation 39
    Double, triple or quadruple hits? Exploring the impact of cybercrime on victims in the Netherlands

    Notté, Raoul; Leukfeldt, E.R.; Malsch, Marijke (2021) International Review of Victimology

Revision history

This history includes approved public synthesis versions. Drafts and unsuccessful generation attempts are not shown.

  1. Version 87

    Current public version

    Automated claim-level support repair round 1, correcting 6 passages from synthesis version 86.

  2. Version 86

    Automated evidence-grounded revision attempt 1. This document replaces the prior draft and preserves the auditor‑protected passages verbatim where required. Compared with the previous version, I removed or narrowed assertions that the audit identified as unsupported (explicit claims about physical consequences as a general class and specified statements about automated‑detection prototypes lacking empirical validation). Preserved paragraphs were reproduced exactly with their required evidence ID...

    • Evidence statements: 178 (+25)

    Sources added: (Mis)Understanding the Impact of Online Fraud: Implications for Victim Assistance Schemes; Addressing Cyberscams and Acquired Brain Injury (“I Desperately Need to Know What to Do”): Qualitative Exploration of Clinicians’ and Service Providers’ Perspectives; Double, triple or quadruple hits? Exploring the impact of cybercrime on victims in the Netherlands; Exploring Fear of Crime for Those Targeted by Romance Fraud; and 2 more.

    Sources removed: Digital Desire and the Cyber Imposter: A Psychoanalytic Reflection on Catfishing; Do we need to know about cyberscams in neurorehabilitation? A cross-sectional scoping survey of Australasian clinicians and service providers; Exploring the roles played by trust and technology in the online investment fraud victimisation process; Online-Dating Romance Scam in Malaysia: An Analysis of Online Conversations between Scammers and Victims; and 2 more.

  3. Version 85

    Initial version: synthesizes the supplied reviewed evidence on psychological, social, physical, and financial harms from relationship‑based online fraud. No prior version changes to report.

    • Publications: 39 (-8)
    • Evidence statements: 153 (-33)
    • Cited sources: 39 (-8)

    Sources added: Analyzing the Evolving Modus Operandi of Romance Scams via Court Judgments: Crime Script and Policy Implications; A Study on Romance Scam : The Current Situation and Effective Countermeasures; Bi-Directional Exploitation of Human Trafficking Victims: Both Targets and Perpetrators in Cybercrime; Does age matter? Examining seniors’ experiences of romance fraud; and 11 more.

    Sources removed: (Mis)Understanding the Impact of Online Fraud: Implications for Victim Assistance Schemes; Addressing Cyberscams and Acquired Brain Injury (“I Desperately Need to Know What to Do”): Qualitative Exploration of Clinicians’ and Service Providers’ Perspectives; A Guide to Understanding Romance Fraud; Analysis of the Romance Scam Phenomenon in Interpersonal Communication of Love Scammer & Victim; and 19 more.

View full revision history (87 versions)
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